Vardaan Learning Institute
Chapter 4: Second Phase of the Indian National Movement (Partition of Bengal & Assertive Nationalism)
Chapter Overview
The early years of the 20th century witnessed the rise of a new faction within the Indian National Congress known as the Assertive Nationalists (or Extremists). Unlike the Early Nationalists who relied on petitions, the Assertive Nationalists demanded Purna Swaraj (Complete Self-Government) through direct mass action, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education.
1. Causes for the Rise of Assertive Nationalism
Towards the close of the 19th century, widespread disillusionment with British rule and the slow pace of Moderate politics led to the growth of Assertive Nationalism. The key causes include:
Key Factors Responsible
1. Famine, Poverty, and Economic Distress
Severe famines struck India between 1896 and 1900 (affecting over 9 crore people). The British government showed indifference and collected land revenue ruthlessly. The outbreak of the Bubonic Plague in Poona further enraged the public due to harsh sanitary measures enforced by Plague Commissioner Rand (who was assassinated by the Chapekar Brothers in 1897).
2. Ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa
Indians in South Africa faced severe racial discrimination, disenfranchisement, and humiliating laws (such as compulsory registration certificates). This aroused deep anti-British feelings and national pride across India.
3. International Events Shattering European Invincibility
Major global events proved that European powers were not invincible:
- Ethiopia (Abyssinia) defeated Italy in 1896.
- Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) — an Asian nation defeating a giant European power inspired Indian patriots immensely.
- The Russian Revolution (1905) demonstrated the power of mass action against autocratic rule.
4. Repressive Policies of Lord Curzon (1899–1905)
Viceroy Lord Curzon passed several anti-people measures designed to curb Indian nationalism:
- Calcutta Corporation Act (1899): Reduced the number of elected Indian members, making it an official body.
- Official Secrets Act (1904): Restricted press freedom and suppressed government criticism.
- Indian Universities Act (1904): Placed universities under official control to check student political activities.
- Partition of Bengal (1905): The climax of Curzon’s imperialist measures.
5. Failure of the Early Nationalists (Moderates)
The younger generation lost faith in the Moderate methods of "Prayers, Petitions, and Protests" (the 3 Ps). The Indian Councils Act of 1892 failed to grant any real power to Indians. Assertive leaders advocated self-reliance and direct action instead of begging for reforms.
2. Main Objectives and Methods of Assertive Nationalists
Ultimate Goal
Goal: Immediate achievement of Swaraj (Complete Independence / Self-Government). Unlike Moderates who wanted colonial self-government within the British Empire gradually, Assertive Nationalists demanded complete freedom from foreign rule without delay.
The Four Methods of Direct Action
Four Pillars of Struggle
- Swadeshi: Encouraging the use of Indian-made goods to promote local industries, generate employment, and achieve economic self-sufficiency.
- Boycott: Rejection and public burning of foreign (British) goods, cloth, salt, and refusal to serve in government offices. Boycott hurt British economic interests directly.
- National Education: Establishing independent national schools and colleges free from British control, offering education in mother tongue with emphasis on national history, culture, and vocational skills.
- Passive Resistance (Non-Cooperation): Refusing to cooperate with the administration, non-payment of taxes, picketing liquor and foreign cloth shops, and enduring police atrocities peacefully.
Comparison: Early Nationalists (Moderates) vs. Assertive Nationalists
| Feature |
Early Nationalists (Moderates) |
Assertive Nationalists (Extremists) |
| Ultimate Objective |
Autonomy / Dominion Status within the British Empire. |
Complete Independence (Swaraj). |
| Faith in British Rule |
Believed British rule was beneficial; had faith in British justice & fair play. |
Had zero faith in British justice; viewed British rule as exploiting India. |
| Methods of Struggle |
Constitutional methods — Petitions, Prayers, Resolutions, Memoranda (3 Ps). |
Direct action — Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education, Passive Resistance. |
| Social Base |
Educated middle class, lawyers, intellectuals, urban elite. |
Mass participation — workers, peasants, students, women, lower middle class. |
| Key Leaders |
Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, W.C. Bonnerjee, Surendranath Banerjee. |
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal), Aurobindo Ghosh. |
3. The Partition of Bengal (1905) and the Swadeshi Movement
Viceroy Lord Curzon announced the Partition of Bengal on 20 July 1905, and it came into official effect on 16 October 1905.
- Official Reason Administrative Convenience. Bengal was a vast province covering Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha (population 78 million), which the British claimed was too large for a single Governor to administer efficiently.
- Real Reason Divide and Rule Policy. Bengal was the nerve center of Indian nationalism. The British sought to:
- Weaken Bengali nationalism by dividing the Bengali-speaking population into two separate provinces.
- Foster communal rivalry between Hindus and Muslims by creating East Bengal & Assam as a Muslim-majority province (capital at Dhaka) and West Bengal as a Hindu-majority province (capital at Calcutta).
Anti-Partition Agitation & Swadeshi / Boycott Movement
Mass Agitation Features
- Day of Mourning (16 October 1905): The day Bengal was partitioned was observed as a day of national mourning. People fasted, walked barefoot to the Ganga taking holy dips, and sang Vande Mataram (composed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay).
- Raksha Bandhan: Rabindranath Tagore suggested celebrating Raksha Bandhan — Hindus and Muslims tied yellow threads (Rakhis) on each other's wrists as a symbol of unbreakable brotherhood and unity.
- Spread of Swadeshi & Boycott:
- Public bonfires of foreign cloth were lit across Bengal and major cities in India.
- Washermen refused to wash foreign clothes; priests refused to perform rituals using foreign sugar or salt.
- Swadeshi shops were set up; Acharya P.C. Ray founded the famous Bengal Chemical Swadeshi Stores.
- Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) and indigenous textile mills flourished.
- National Education Movement: Students walked out of government schools. The National Council of Education was established on 15 August 1906, leading to the setting up of the Bengal National College with Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal.
- Annulment of Partition (1911): Unprecedented mass pressure forced the British government to annul the Partition of Bengal in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar by King George V (capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911).
4. The Surat Split (1907)
The rift between Moderates and Assertive Nationalists culminated in a dramatic split at the Surat Session of the Indian National Congress in December 1907.
Causes & Course of the Surat Split
Main Differences:
- Dispute over Resolutions: At the 1906 Calcutta Session (presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji), resolutions on Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education were passed. In 1907 at Surat, Moderates wanted to drop or tone down these resolutions.
- Dispute over Congress President: Assertive Nationalists proposed Lala Lajpat Rai (or Tilak) as President, whereas Moderates insisted on Rashbehari Ghosh.
- Extension of Movement: Extremists wanted to extend Swadeshi and Boycott to the whole of India and boycott all government institutions; Moderates wanted to restrict Boycott strictly to Bengal and foreign goods only.
Outcome: Pandemonium broke out during the session. The Moderates, who controlled the party machine, suspended the session and expelled the Assertive Nationalists from the Congress. The split weakened the nationalist movement significantly from 1907 to 1916.
5. Prominent Assertive Nationalist Leaders (Lal-Bal-Pal)
Lokmanya Tilak
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920) — "Father of Indian Unrest"
Popularly known as Lokmanya ("Beloved Leader of the People"), Tilak was the foremost leader of the Assertive Nationalists.
- Historic Slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!"
- Revival of Festivals: Transformed traditional religious celebrations into mass nationalist festivals:
- Ganapati Festival (1893) — mobilized youth and public crowds.
- Shivaji Festival (1895) — inspired courage and historical pride.
- Journalism & Press: Published two bold revolutionary newspapers:
- Kesari (in Marathi)
- Mahratta (in English)
- Educational & Social Work: Co-founded the Deccan Education Society and Fergusson College at Poona to impart national education.
- Home Rule League (1916): Founded the Indian Home Rule League at Poona in April 1916.
- Literary Works & Exile: Sentenced to 6 years of hard labor in Mandalay Jail (Burma) from 1908 to 1914, where he authored his famous commentary on Bhagavad Gita titled Gita Rahasya. Also wrote The Arctic Home in the Vedas.
Father of Revolutionary Thought
Bipin Chandra Pal (1858–1932)
Known as the "Father of Revolutionary Thought in India", he was a powerful orator, writer, and thinker from Bengal.
- Pioneer of Purna Swaraj: One of the earliest leaders to openly declare that self-government (Swaraj) meant total independence from British rule, not just administrative reform.
- Journals & Publications: Founded and edited influential journals:
- New India (weekly journal advocating radical nationalism).
- Worked with Aurobindo Ghosh on Bande Mataram.
- Started Paridarsak (Bengali weekly).
- Social Reforms: Championed widow remarriage, women's education, eradication of untouchability, and advocated higher wages and shorter working hours for factory workers.
Punjab Kesari
Lala Lajpat Rai (1865–1928)
Popularly known as Punjab Kesari ("Lion of Punjab"), he was a charismatic leader, social reformer, and educationalist.
- Educational & Social Contributions: Joined Arya Samaj; played a key role in founding the D.A.V. College at Lahore. Founded the Servants of the People Society for the welfare of outcasts and needy.
- Swadeshi in Punjab: Spread the Swadeshi movement across Punjab and North India; established indigenous banks (helped establish Punjab National Bank) and textile units.
- Writings & Journals: Founded The Young India (monthly magazine in USA), Punjabee, and Vande Mataram (Urdu daily). Authored books including Unhappy India and Young India.
- Deportation & Martyrdom:
- Deported to Mandalay in 1907 without trial for leading agrarian protests in Punjab.
- In October 1928, led a peaceful demonstration against the Simon Commission at Lahore. He was brutally lathi-charged by British police officer James Scott.
- Before succumbing to injuries on 17 November 1928, he famously declared: "Every blow struck on my back will serve as a nail in the coffin of the British Empire."
